The
Marings

Maring is one of the oldest Naga Tribes found settled in the south-eastern part of the present state of Manipur (India), bordering Myanmar (erstwhile Burma). They mostly inhabit the Chandel district of the present Manipur state, but also found scattered in other districts like Senapati, Ukhrul, Tamenglong, etc. There are some groups of people found living in other parts of India and other countries like Bangladesh and Myanmar whose appearances are similar to the Maring people.

Maring people are simple, generous, hygienic and heroic. It is also said that the Maring people were physically tall and strong.

“The features of the Marings (Murrings) approximate to those of the Burmese (Myanmarese); some of them have flat and others have well-shaped noses. And their general expression is mild and intelligent. The height of the men of these tribes (Nagas) varies from the slende, lightly built Marings to the tall, sturdy, finely proportioned Mao’s”

The Maring people have many important peculiarities and distinctiveness from other Naga tribes and Non Naga tribes as well that easily set them aside. One of the peculiarities and distinctiveness of the Maring tribe may be exemplified by “Hasang” (blacken teeth). This blackening of teeth is commonly practiced by the elderly people and the youths after they have been enrolled in the “Rkhang” (Social Institution/Dormitory). However, with the dawn of the Christianity and the Modern Education, the practice gradually losses its sheen thence total disappearance nowadays.

“Murshoom/Burshoom” is a bundling of hairs of men folks right above the forehead that looks like a one horn rhino. The horn shaped hair bundle is then decorated with several lines of hard reddish beads (rulshoom) wrapping around it. It is said that the original reddish beads were made of excreta of Python snake.

“Laanpur Klat” is another peculiarity/distinctiveness associated with the Maring people before the dawn of Christianity in our society. It is the tradition of re-opening old tomb/grave for re-use by relatives which is not heard elsewhere. The grave is made like a necked earthen/clay pot with the man hole wide just enough to drop down the death body or wide enough for entry or exit for the men at work. The grave itself is unique in the sense that other than the Maring people there was none who practiced the custom or lately has started practicing similar custom.

The Maring people were also feared for their witchcraft/voodoo/sorcery which had been considered education by the Maring people during those early days.

*1 Dr. R. Brown (Political Agent in Manipur), “Selections from the Records’ of the Government of India, Foreign Department,” NO. LXXVIII.1870, pp.101 & 125. & T.C. Hodson. “The Naga Tribes of Manipur. “Low price publications, Ashok Vihar, Phase-IV. Delhi-110052. 1911, reprint-1989, 1996, p.6.

Today, the Maring Tribe is a whopping 80,000 strong people recouping every loss in terms of lives as well as social stability and developments endured due to their frequent wars against the provocative mighty Meitei kings. The Maring people have wriggled out of the clutches and jaws of death. They believe that they will no more fall again as it indeed is a deliverance by the Almighty one upon whom they have unflinching faith.

According to the reports of Dr. Grierson in his book “Linguistic Survey of India,” the Maring language (dialect) falls in the family of Tibeto-Burman languages, which comes under the sub-group of Naga-Kuki languages. These sub-group languages are Sopvoma (Mao-Maram), Miyangkhang (Thangal), Koireng (Kolren/Liyang), Luhuppa or Luppa (i.e.Tangkhul and Maring languages). Out of these sub-group languages, the three languages such as Sopvoma (Mao­ Maram), Tangkhul and Maring exhibit a regular gradation in the change of speech. Sopvoma (Mao-Maram) is most nearly connected with the Western-Naga language and the Maring with the Kuki ones, while Tangkhul occupies an intermediate position. *2.

But culturally and socially, the Maring people are prominently different from the Kuki people in regard to naming of persons, name of clans, customary laws, establishment of village, village administrations, festivals, folk dances and folk songs; maintenance of hairs by men folks and women folks, food habits and way of living, common grave yards outside the village gate, burials & its rituals, etc.

*2 Dr. GA. Grierson, C.I.E. (Director of Linguistic Survey of India). “A Report of the Linguistic Survey of India, Vol.III.Part ii, 1903, p.451.

The oral legend of the forefathers that has been handing down from generation to generation tells that the Maring people were once upon a time living inside the cave called “Nungmuishor” in Kulvi-Shongshong under the rulership of Khopu-Rampu with full civilizations. The rulers were:

• Charang (Purangmei, Rangmeithil/Rangshon/Kungnorkarung)
• Dangsha (Khalsherung, Nangsha/Angsha)
• Makung (Kungkarung/MakuTolnu) and
• Tantang (Tangkirung, Tangmanshou/Tangmanthral).

The oral legend also says that the life inside the cave or underneath the Earth was terribly difficult and hard. However they could not come out of the cave as there was a big stone (Lungthung in local term) sealing the opening of the cave. They tried to open the Lungthung using different means like pig (Hog), cow (Haal), buffalo (Nalui/Nlui), etc. but in vain. The legend further says that the flattened nose of the pig and the crack marks on buffalo horns was obtained while trying to push open the Lungthung. After long and serious discussion and consultation with elders, Shrim-paa-bungrang (black with white patches/white with black patches male Mithun) was bought and brought from an old woman of a Chote village then was sent to push open the Lungthung which at last could open it. Thus, the Maring people who had been struggling to set free themselves from the terrible and hard life in Nungmuishor (underneath the earth) at last could make it and the first settlement on earth begun there at Kulvi-Shongshong. This is the reason why Mithun is considered Sacred; the most acceptable sacrificial animal during important rituals/ceremonies like “Minphuk-phalphuk” (naming of person), “Thil Kalai” (erection of monument stones), “Paar-kyao, Halbu-bun” (erection of ritualistic flower vats and poles), “Hithro” (rituals for the deceased), “Nu man” (bride price), etc.

The legendry or oral chronicle about the early settlement of the Maring people says that after the first settlement at Kulvi-Shongshong, the Maring people gradually moved towards an empty vast land called Washaphai/Wanshangphai, Mongrengphai and Mongsha in Kabaw valley. These places are now in Myanmar. “Before 261 B.C. the Marings were already settled in the Kabaw valley. According to Myanmar traditions, Marings came from a region in Western China between the sources of the Yang-tse-kiang and Hwang-Ho rivers and reached upper Myanmar through the Ango-Range, they settled arround the Irrawady River-Ningthi basin and from there reached Maringphai” (Roland-1998, p.57).

In due course of time, the civilization of the Maring people gradually spread along the Ningthee basin (Inthee river basin) in Moleching (also known as Angkoching) range and in Yoomadung Hills (Myanmar). Later on, people took their own choice of direction and moved on looking for new places for settlement. So, forming different migratory groups, some groups proceeded towards the place called Mongni and to Phaikaryam then to Mongrengphai and to Topanga in Kamongbung range and came to Dolenbung. There, they set up several monoliths or megaliths as signs of settlement which can be found existing till today (present Myanmar). At last they came to Shangthelbung range or Bungkarshang (present Manipur: India) and from there they dispersed to different directions and established several villages like Ayong-Atoukhu (Yongkhul/Khulimol) and Sarbu/Saibu/Sarbukhong (Saibol), Sairel-Saishim, Atou, Makan, Chingshao, Kashung, Lamasi/Nambasi and Narum/Ralimkhu in Kharou range, etc.

Some sections of the Maring people traveled towards Mongrengphai (a place where people lived like a dream or dreamland)/Muirengphai/Murringphy,*3 and further proceeded towards the places like Thipamna, Songkan, Khampat, Kameng, Latao, Taap, Lichiek, Mangsa, etc. Later on they moved towards Mongthelbung in Bungpui Range and established a village called Khoibu/“Uipo Yultang”.

*3 Dr. R. Brown: “Report for 1868-69; pp.l18 & 124, and T.C. Hodson: The Nagas of Manipur, 1996; pp.l0, 11 & 15.

And the another or major section of the Maring people traveled and proceeded towards the western side of the Ningthee basin and started settling in places called Panyangbung, Sekmahbung, Sharchibung, Yanglhungthil, Oklebung, Panubung, Makoubung, Ramshekbung, Shangthil, Ramshipbung, Yangtompe, Khukyul, Khochep, Khungrul, Yulbung, Shabung, Pungrul, etc. and later on came and settled at Tuishimi (Tuini/ Tuikhini) on the Langkoubung-Pulbung range (in Manipur). The places of settlements mentioned above may not be in correct chronological order, but these names of the places of settlements are mentioned in the folk songs of our forefathers.

The legendry/oral chronicles of the forefathers (also corroborated by the written history of the Royal Chronicles of the Manipur, Cheitharol Kumpaba) says that some Maring people even traveled towards the Imphal valley and settled at Langol Hills (North Imphal) before or during the time of Meidingu Ura Konthouba (568-658 A.D.) which is still known as Langol Maring Khunman (Haokap Chingshang Khunpham Ngangcheng) with Meba Laipham (Mebungsui­Theemkhui from the Khulsaibung village) as the Priest (or Maiba in Meitei language) of that particular sacred place near Langol Housing complex and Laithungching (the present Lanthungching village). This is known to be the place where the Maring people from that Haokap Chingshang Khunpham Ngangcheng village (Langol hills) were cursed by the then Maharaja Meidingu ura Konthouba. Due to the terrible results of the curse of the Maharaj, the Maring people of the village could no longer live there further hence ran away for their safety from that terrible curse (laithungba) of the Maharaja towards the places like “Haobam Marak, Lamlong (lmphal-east), Leishang Kong, a village in the valley some seven or eight miles south of the capital-Imphal, 4* Soibam Leikai, (the place where the Maring people from Haobam Marak spread traps/nets (soi thaba) in the lake/river for fishing), Haokha-Tangjeng (Keingam’s fishing spot/place, from where one Keingam Khuiluwa, a fisherman from the Kanshowa family, captured tiger cubs), Lulumbung at Wangnoo (Wangoo at present) in South Moirang, Khambathel in Noorth-East of Sugunu, and at Shamaram, South-West of Khongjom Bazar (thus called Samran, the first son of the Maring Koijomba family). From these places, the group of Maring people who proceeded towards Imphal finally moved towards the places where they are living at present, due to various reasons. Mr. T.C. Hodson wrote (described) about the migrations of the tribal people (hill tribes like Tangkhuls and the Marings particularly): “They left the valley because of the heat and the mosquitoes made life there impossible, and migrated to the hills, taking with them fire which became extinguished ... 5* This is in brief how the Maring people founded settlements at different places and how at last had they settled down in their own favorite places and villages since time immemorial which has now constituted our beautiful Maringa Chingshang. And along the way, many Maring people were converted (proselyte) into Meitei/valley people, compelled by situations and/or circumstances where life or death had to be opted – conversion to life, rejection to death. This conversion mostly happened with the prisoner of wars. According to W.Mc.Culloch (1852): “Tradition brings the Moirang tribe from the South - the direction of the Kukies; the Koomal/Khumans from the East ­ the direction of the Murrings (Marings), and the Meiteis and Luwangs from the North - the direction of the Koupooes (Kabulis)”6*

*4 Colonel W.Mc.Culloch: (Political Agent in Manipur), “Account of valley of Manipuri. Selections from the Records of the Government of India, Foreign Department, “No XXVII, 1859, p.65. *5 T.C. Hodson: The Naga Tribes of Manipur, (Geographical Distribution), 1996, pp.10, 1l & 15. * Op.cit.p.10. *6 “Dr. Lucy Zehol: Ethnicity in Manipur. Published by Regency publication, New Delhi-1998; p.146.

The term “Maring” is derived from the word “Meiring” or “Meiringba,” which means “the people who had been keeping the fire unquenched.” The legendry/oral chronicle says that the ‘Maring’ or “Meiring’ or ‘Meiringba’ obtained fire from the traditional ways of making fire called ‘Meihongtang’ using dry wood of a particular tree called Khongma-heeng/Khongma-thing with bamboo strips and dry bushes/grasses. The dry grasses/bushes are rubbed against the dry Khongma-heeng with the bamboo strips/splinters until fire produces due to friction. The fires thus produced are considered “Sacred” (Meikhring) and were set up at sacred places like village altar called Kholamun/Rlhamun, village gates called Palshung/Palthung and dormitory called Rkhang. The sacred fires are kept burning by feeding fire woods (Meirup heeng) and this practice of keeping fire alive/burning continued till the dawn of Christianity in Maring Land.

The belief of the Maring people in keeping the sacred fires unquenched (Meikhring) was that it kept the villagers, village or community alert from the evils or evil spirits and from their enemies. As warriors, our forefathers proclaim themselves their bravery through a victory shouts during demonstration of Lou-kwaal/Lhousa (Maring war dance). It goes like this:

“Tik nahade, nahade, ‘Maring, Meiringbade,’ Nongpok - Thongakpade; Pheiganna chungmuk thabade; Pambomna Ting-ting laobade; Chellaga nungsitgumbade, Phamlaga nungdumgumbade; Nahong-phina kabak thangne”

Translation of the verse as under:

“Mighty one, the Patriot, ‘Maring Meiringba;’ Keeper of sacred fire unquenched; Man of the east, the keeper of the Eastern Gate (watchman); Thighs thick and strong as shield; Arms strong as mighty; Runs as fast as wind, Sits as heavy as a rock; His sword, ‘The nahong phee,’ (The swaddling/wrapping cloth on which he was cared and brought up with)”

Thus, historical accounts of our forefathers have been handing down orally from generation to generation how and why they called themselves ‘Maring’ or ‘Meiring’ or ‘Meiringba’ which are derivatives of the sacred fires they produced. The Government of India in its Scheduled Tribes recognition list mentioned as Maring Naga (“Ringa Naga” or “Maringa Ram,” in the local language-Singh-1997, p.897). Because the Office of the Dewan of Manipur State had recommended this same tribe (Maring) in the lists (Sl. No.18) to be recognized as one of the Scheduled tribes, on its letter No. 2/AG/49/0695-96, dated, Imphal, the 6th June, 1949, addressed to the Secretary, the Government of India, Ministry of States, New Delhi; under the subject: “Enumeration of Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes,” with the reference No. D.4101-B/49, dated 28th April, 1949, addressed to the Advisor of His Excellency, the Governor of Assam, i.e. Sir Akbar Hydari (former), and copy to - the Advisor to His Excellency the Governor of Assam, i.e. Shri Prakasa (new) with reference to his No. S/Misc./270/49/3 of 4th May, 1949. *7. Under the subsequent amendment of the Constitution of Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes lists, Affairs, Government of India, Dated 29th October, 1956, in which 29 (twenty nine) Tribes of Manipur were given recognition. And this name “Maring” had been popularly used as “Murrings” according to their pronunciations by many of the English/British/Western writers in their journals/books/discovery records as well even long before the Dewan of Manipur recorded/mentioned in its recommendation list to the Union Government of India for recognition.

*7 Hiram Ringkahao: The Genesis of the Naga Political Movement. Published at Enjoy Computers, MBC Shopping complex, Imphal, Manipur-J998. p.90.

All the Maring villages had been consisted of different clans and sub-clans. There had been mainly four major clans which are known as (i) ‘Charang’ from the root clan ‘Rangmei’ or ‘Purangmei’ (ii) ‘Dangsha’ from the root clan ‘Khalserung’ (iii) ‘Makung’ from the root clan ‘Kungkarung’ and (iv) ‘Tantang’ from the root clan ‘Tangkirung’ or ‘Tangkrung’. These four major clans have been divided further into different sub-clans as under:

Maring people have strong affinity with God. They have strong belief that God is their protector, provider, counselor, etc. Witness to their faith and belief is clear from how they establish village.

Prior to the establishment of a village, the Khulpu (Chief Priest) has to check the proposed site for acceptability through ritual performance by keeping two Roosters - one in the western side of the proposed site and the other in the eastern side. If the Rooster in the western side crows first with its two wings flapping, then it is considered bad omen so the site is rejected. Whereas if the Rooster in the eastern side crows first then it is considered as good omen and hence the site is approved for village establishment.

After the approval of the site, what next is the consecration of the site performed by the Khulpu then Lhamal (village altar in the form of stone) is erected as foundation stone. After the establishment of the village follows compulsarily the construction of village gates – front and rear. Placement of the gates is either North-South or East-West.

Village gates have huge significance. It is the symbol of security and protection of the villagers. It is not simply a physical errection or installation of gates but most importantly an invocation of the Protector through strict ritualistic ceremony to stand guard the village. On the day of Meichuksa (ceremony), the Priest perform ritual to cast out evil spirits from the village premises then hang or put up branches of trees on the gates (front & rear) to symbolise clossure of the gates so that castout evil spirits cannot enter again. The importance of the village gates is marked by celebration and observaion of its repairing every year.

The Kholamun (Lhamal) or the village Altar is the sacred place where the sacrifices and offerings are made in the ritual life of the Maring people. No ordinary persons are allowed to enter the Altar except the Priest.

Khulpu is the High Priest from the Charang clan and he is assisted by other three associate sub-priests from the other three Clans such as Khullak (Dangsha), Wairok (Makung) and Youtuwa (Tantang).

Wangkhai (Dangsha) plays the important role in seed sowing (Trunwai tla) functions/ceremonies and he is assisted by Youtuwa (Tantang) in his ritualistic functions.

Wairok (Makung) plays important roles in warfare as soothsayer who predicts the future and outcome of the war. At the same time Wairok are the preservers of the customaries.

Youtuwa (Tantang) plays the most important role in patriotic duties as “Ui-Ihourui” which means the commander-in-chief (keeper of dogs) in the battlefield. They are the real warriors (Lhouwa) of the Maring tribe. However, he can also take the role of other clans like Khulpu, Dangsa and Makung in case of their absence as Priest in the village Altar, Seed sowing functions and also as soothsayer in the matter of the warfare.

Maring is an independent tribe. The socio-economic life of the Maring people shows that they had been living in a well organized society. There is a strong force of mutual love and respect which is the asset of social harmony. Every individual respects the customary laws and religious practices.

Family is composed of married couple and children with their grandparents. The eldest son after marriage remains with his parents (father, mother & grandparents). He is the heir of the family inheriting all the properties of the father, whereas younger sons move out of their parent’s house after marriage and start their family separately. Thus, the eldest son takes care of the old parents, unmarried younger siblings (brothers and sisters), even the grand-parents.

The Maring society is a patriarchal society. Father is regarded as head of the family and holds a very high status in the society. He takes decisions of the least to crucial matters

Inheritance and succession in the Maring community is of primogeniture. The eldest son inherits the parental properties - movable and immovable. Women are not entitled (reject right to inherit) for any immovable properties of their parents. However, on the generosity of her father, she may get a share at the time of her marriage. And if the family does not have a son (to be heir), the nearest of male kin can inherit the properties of that family.

Cross-cousin marriage (puwacha kalou) is the most preferred and the most common form of marriage in the community. One can marry one’s mother’s brother’s (maternal uncle’s) daughter and the relationship is called “puwa mannei kalou” and maintained as “Neeni heellam­thung” but one cannot marry one’s father’s sister’s (paternal aunty’s) daughter, which is considered as “yu kalou,” or “Puwa heellam-kalleng”. The marriage exchange (i.e.to say the giver is always giver) is not practiced in the community. But the engaged or arranged marriage is a common practice. At the same time love marriage also happened though very rare. Almost all the marriages take place with full consent of the parents from both sides (families). The marriage process takes place for complete three years (nu kangai).

Endogamy i.e. marriage amongst the same community/villagers is the most preferred and the most common in the Maring society. This is because of the fact that helping hands are easily available. Monogamy (married one wife) system was the common practice however polygamy was not completely absent. “Pinglam kalou” (Incest marriage) was strictly prohibited and if happened, punishment was imposed under customary laws of the Maring people. The mode of punishment is called “Mungna” where a heavy fine was imposed and the couple was excommunicated (expelled) from the society/village/community.

Divorce was strictly prohibited and if happened, punishment was imposed upon the concerned person according to the customary laws of the Maring people.

Naming of children in Maring is very unique. It is systematic and self explanatory. Prefixing makes all the difference in naming system of the Maring people; prefix makes all the difference in names of the Maring people. The first son is called “Mo”, so “Mo” is prefixed to his name as Molhungshim. The first daughter is called “Te”, so “Te” is prefixed to her name as Tedarshim. Similarly Ko, Me, Ang, Lei is prefixed to second, third, fourth and fifth son’s name respectively whereas To, Tung, Khu and Lei/Kham is prefixed to the second, third, fourth and fifth daughter’s name respectively. Soubriquet/pet names in order of birth are tabled as under:

*“Mee” is not followed among the Khotleya/Kholeya Tantang.

Maring kinship terminology is clean and clear. It has different and exhaustive terminology system for maternal and paternal lineage. For example paternal uncle say the younger brother of a father is called Pappa; elder brother of a father is called Patang. Similarly younger sister of a mother is called Nucha; elder sister of a mother is called Nutang. Younger sister of a father is called Nincha; elder sister of father is called Nintang. Similarly younger brother of a mother is called Puwa; elder brother of a mother is called Putang.

Terminologies of relationships of the Maring people (Minlam ungnei lammit) may be understood further as under:

• Lhoúwa - Hero (Patriot)
• Lhoúwi - Heroine (Patriotess)
• Lhouyāng - Mister (Mr.)/boy
• Reidāng - Miss (Ms)/Girl/maid
• Sámkhu - Mistress (Mrs)/Woman
• Nũwi/Uwa - Mother
• Pãwa - Father
• Pātër - Grand pa (Grand Father)
• Nutër - Grand ma (Grand Mother)
• Pãtáng - Uncle (Father’s elder brother)
• Pãpa - Uncle in general (Father’s younger brother)
• Pãmo - Uncle who is first son and younger to ones father.
• Pãko - Uncle who is second son and younger to ones father.
• Pãme - Uncle who is third son and younger to ones father.
• Pãngte - Uncle who is fourth son and younger to ones father.
• Patul - Uncle who is fifth son and younger to ones father.
• Nũtáng - Aunty (Father’s elder brother’s wife)
• Ûwacha/Nucha - Aunty (Father’s younger brother’s wife)
• Pũtáng - Maternal elder uncle (Mother’s elder brother).
• Pũpu - Maternal younger uncles (Mother’s younger brothers).
• Pũwa - Father-in-law of a groom.
• Pípi - Mother-in-law of a groom/Maternal aunty.
• Mrȧng - Father-in-law of a bride/Paternal sister’s husband.
• Níni - Mother-in-law of a groom/ Sisters of the husband.
• Níntáng - Father’s elder sister.
• Níncha - Father’s younger sister.
• Nute - Mother’s/Wife’s younger sister who is a first daughter.
• Nuto - Mother’s/Wife’s younger sister who is a second daughter.
• Nupe/Tape - Mother’s/Wife’s younger sister who is a third daughter.
• Nukham - Mother’s/wife’s younger sister who is a fifth daughter.
• Teiwi - Elder brother’s wife/Sister-in-law.
• Teiwa - Elder sister’s husband/Brother-in-law.
• Kmāk - Son-in-law
• Mouwi - Daughter-in-law.
• Kāpui - Address to a fellow friend who is from different clan.
• Pallui/Phlui - Friend
• Puiyũ - Nephew.
• Mánnei - Mother’s brother’s child/children.
• Lungtrim - Sister (general)
• Shẽlkhú - Son-in-law and Daughter-in-law’s parents
• Nengpai - Brother-in-law’s friendship.
• Nû - Wife
• Shál - Husband
• Yũ - Cousin/Nephew/Niece
• Ngaimȧnkhoú Nangāka - Betrothed Girl/Fiancé.
• Yũwa - Sister’s/brother’s son (Nephew)
• Yũwi - Sister’s/Brother’s daughter (Niece)
• Kartláng/Nangāk Úpā – Spinster
• Kartlánga - Bachelor/Unmarried boy.
• Nangāka - Damsel/Unmarried girl.
• Napuinû - Married lady/Woman.
• Mashálla/Nashalla - Married man

Economically Maring people were self-sufficient. Agriculture in the form of Jhum and Terrace cultivation is the mainstay of the Maring people for sustenance; it is our main occupation. It plays an important role in the economy of the Maring people. Paddy is cultivated both in jhum and in terrace whereas vegetables and other cash crops were planted in the jhum fields and gardens. Common cash crops are maahai (pumpkin), maipol (gourd species), khongtum (bottle gourd), baal (yam), chakui chak/chungke (maize), sipot (gourd species), hui (ginger), maroi (coriander), machang hei (cucumber), pheet (chilly), etc. Supplementary to agriculture, the Maring people do handicrafts, trades, domesticates, fishing, hunting, etc.

Maring people are known for their craftsmanship. We mostly do cane and bamboo handicrafts. Our craftsmanship is epitomized by the saying in Manipuri dialect, “Maring na saaba sangbaaidi naamma haangde haaineido” which simply translates to perfection of the Maring handicrafts.

Maring people also do trading since olden days. We normally practiced barter systems in olden days where we exchanged our produces with others who came from the valley for items we didn’t produce or got from our surroundings like oil, salt, sugar, clothes, yarn, etc.

Rearing animals such as cows, bulls, buffalo, mithun (shrim), pig (hogs), dogs, fowls, cats, etc. was (and is still) very common in the life of the Maring people. It serves both for agricultural purpose as well as commercial; moreover for consumption. Domestication of animals normally was not confining them in particular place like ranch farming/rearing. The animals were set free in the surroundings for free grazing except for dogs and cats.

Fishing is another supplementary practice to agriculture since olden days. It is seasonal and mainly in rivers. Fishing is mainly done by poisoning the river/pond water using roots of particular trees/shrubs found in the jungle. When they go fishing, they go in group/team for 3-4 days. Their catches are normally sun dried and packed to take them home after they are done with the fishing.

Hunting is another famous supplementary occupation of the Maring people since olden days. Maring people practiced group as well as solitary hunting in the jungle. Some of the favourite seasons for hunting are rainy season & spring season during which tender bamboo shoots started sprouting and new leaves and flowers bloom. Some of the favourite hunts are deer, wild boar, wild cat, monkey, wild fowl, etc. In group hunting, it is a tradition that the person who first bled the hunt is entitled for the head of the animal along with one thigh.

Rice is a staple food for the Maring people. Meal normally consists of rice with curry/dish made out of variety of vegetables, meat and fish. The Maring people are fond of spicy. Anpol (chutni) and/or Shingdee shoo (beaten dry fish or meat with locally found spice called shingdee and chilly) is integral part of meal for most of the Maring families. “Bethao bebung” is a fermented soya beans which is one of the favourites of the Maring people for making Anpol, Shingdee-shoo and as taste makers for curry/dish. It is smashed to paste and stored as dry cake normally on Changdou (a suspended bamboo made tray above fireplace for keeping/spreading food items like dry chilly, dry meat, dry fish, bethao bebung, etc).

Chadou An (Porridge) is another favoutite of the Maring people. The best combination/make is with meat (either beef or pork or chicken). Some people like it with pig or cow legs (dry or fresh). Chadou is also known as Aun krung (King dish/curry) as it is an all round favorite for big and small functions.

Maring people also use local brew like many other Naga tribes. The Maring local brew is called Waitul (Rice husk beer). It is prepared by fermenting cooked rice mixed with husks and locally made yeast in a big container and serve either in a Khwa Lokthong (cylindrical jar made out of bamboo knot) or Tul Khang (earthen pot for serving or storing brew). It is rather considered an energy drinks for both men folks and women folks. This is a favourite during field works and functions.

Adult people also have the practice of piping Hilakboor (hukah pipe). The Hukah pot is normally made of coconut shell by removing the lining nuts inside. Bamboo knots were also used for the same.

Maring villagers normally draw water from streams, rivers or ponds (yuyso/yuyphum/Tuyso). They use bamboo tubes, bun (made of dry gourd by cleaning the inside) and pots to carry water. In olden days most of the Maring villagers had to travel long distance through jungle and gorge to fetch water from streams.

Planting banyan trees and water producing trees in the vicinity of the ponds gives abundant waters. They keep water very need and clean and consider as source of life. Too much greedy/selfish for water and wasting them is considered evil. Search for new village sites used to focus more on availability of abundant water/water sources. The value of water the Maring society has is marked by celebration of a festival called Yuisho Lamlai with ritual every year where roads that lead to water ponds are cleansed.

Every Maring village has been autonomous. It has its own political as well as administrative set-up like any modern day Nation. Each village is ruled by the Khulpu (Charang) – Khullak (Dangsha) with the help of village council whose members were elected/nominated from different clans who were understood to be able, courageous, intelligent and most of all, men of wisdoms.Among the Maring there are two hereditary officers, khulpu and khullakpa, within some villages, a Meithei Lambu, who is the villager possessing the best knowledge of Manipuri. (TC hudson: naga tribes of Manipur, P-48)

Names of higher authority in the village administrative body (yamarap) are:

1. Khulpu
2. Khullak
3. Mantri
4. Meilhampu
5. Ruprak
6. Soupuly
7. Wangkhairak
8. Shillung
9. Khochangrui

Khulpu: It is a heridetary post. After he expires, his eldest son succeeds him. If he happens to have no son, his nearest of kin is eligible to be appointed as Khulpu. Khulpu is the Chief Priest who heads all the ritualistic functions and ceremonies and also performs all the rituals or supervises. In olden days most of the ritual ceremonies pertains to village establishments, house inauguration, chasing out evil spirits, outbreak of epidimics, etc. No one from other clans can take this responsibility unless there is none in the village for cases as such where Youtuwa (Tantang) can step in.

Khullak: It is a hereditary post. After his death, his eldest son will succeed him. In case he left no son, his nearest of kin is eligible to succeed him. He is the Chief of the village. His responsibilities are administration, political affairs, warfare, external affairs, social welfare & justice. He has absolute power on some cases within the village. In every village affairs, his assignment is duely required without which nothing can be proceeded. Khullak is the Chief justice. Like modern day Nation, everything is being done under certain laws called the Customary Law. This Law is the Constitution of the Maring people as a whole. Though not in written form, no one dares to manipulate and/or goes against it.

Mantri: It is the post of village secretary. This post is not permanent. It is on appointment basis by the Khulpu and Khulak. However for this post a person must have certain innate quality of trusworthiness, high moral principles and good oration.

Meilhampu: It is a very important post in the olden days. The post of Meilhampu is by appointment. He leads the villagers in time of wildfire within the jurisdiction of the village. He also innitiates for reconcilation in time of intervillage crisis due to wildfire.

Ruprak: Maring villages were said to be frequently in war against their own brother from other villages or against the Meitei kings. Frequently in wars against one or the other kingdoms/villages made the Maring people highly honed in warefares. These armies of highly honed warriors were under the command of their chief called Ruprak. Ruprak is the Chief of Army. He takes decision whether to wage war or not against any potential enemies. Ruprak is a hereditary post which is inherited and succeeded by heirs. Ruprak can take incharge of the Khulpu in his absence.

Soupuly: Soupuly is the second in command of the Maring warriors. The post is heriditary. He takes all the responsibilities of the Ruprak in the case of his absence, even declaring war.

Wangkhairak: Wangkhairaks are the seed sowers. They are also called Chada. It is a tradition in Maring society that the Wangkhairaks will start sowing of seeds in the village then the rest will follow.

Shellung: Shellung is the village treasurer. He is the custodian of the village’s treasure. He is suppose to be a person of high integrity and good in keeping accounts.

Changrui: They are the ushers of the village who help the village elders and village authorities. There is no fix number for Changrui. Normally it depends on size or population of the village. The Changrui acts as per the directive of the Khulpu-Khullak or village authority, including collection of subscriptions, contributions, publicity/announcement, etc. If necessary, they go door to door for announcement of important matters. In return for their service, they are exempted from any kind of village subscription as long as they hold the post of Changrui.

1. Khangshillak: He is the Warden of Rkhang (Village dormitory) and is responsible for looking after the Rkhang members. He also makes sure that the inmates don’t break Rkhang norms.
2. Laarung: He is the song master who leads the folk songs during cultural programs. He also leads folk song practices and also teaches folk songs.
3. Theem: They are the sorcerers or witches or priest who foretell and also castout evil spirits or demons from villages and also from possessed human being.
4. Khilampu: He is the Priest (Theem) who performs rituals for the death with offerings and sacrifices. In addition to the above, he also performs for seed sowing rituals.
5. Uilhourui: They are the handlers of Hounds during mass huntings particularly on ya-kyao festival.
6. Phungrui: They are the Master Drummers in the village. Phungrui can be one or more depending on the village leaders. They lead drumming in any traditonal functions. Maring people have many drum tunes. They have drum tunes for different occasions.
7. Llang-lha: They are the expert blacksmiths in the village. Blacksmiths are highly valued people in the village because of the fact that they smittens weapons & tools which are essential for their protections/survival as warriors.
8. Chingsanglak/Chinsangrak: He is the Chief Justice of the customary Maring court. He presides hearing of cases and passes verdicts. It is a temporary post and is appointed by the village authority.

The Maring people have been preserving their own unwritten constitutions. Though undocumented, nobody dares to go against the customary laws of the community.

According to the Hill Area Village Authority Act of 1956, the Chief Khullakpa/Khullakpa shall be an ex officio Chairman of the Village Authority. Thus the administrative structure gradually transformed from Khulpu-Khullak to Village Authority headed by the Chairman.

“Rkhāng” is a Social Institution of the Maring community where members/students were imparted knowledge on their background & origin, social & cultural activities, folklores, folkdances & folksongs, social & customary laws, traditional & customary practices, religion & art of living, etc. The Maring customary laws demanded enrolment of youths both male and female of the village into this Social Institution. Enrollment into this Institution is called Rkhāng Ruichal.

Rkhāng was indeed the Centre of Learning for the Maring people. All sort of lessons pertaining to life and living together as Maring community were taught there. As part of training/education, tasks were allotted to the members (youths) by the village elders, the senior members or the authority of the dormitory who were in fact teachers/trainers of the Institution. Lessons include games & sports, music & instruments, songs & dances, religion & rituals, customary practices & customary laws, loom & crafts, administration & leadership, etc.

Thus, the Rkhang was a training centre/ institution for art of living as well as entertainment and fun. No social function in the village/community was arranged or managed without the help of the Rkhāng members who in fact literally executed all the works – strenuous and simple. They distributed/shared various duties and responsibilities among themselves on the basis of seniority in the Rkhāng. The older members of the Rkhāng shouldered greater responsibilities than the juniors or newly enrolled members. There were times when the Rkhāng organized entertainments in the forms of dancing, singing (Rkhāng knúy, Rkhāng-laa shā, Shrengsẽng chũn, etc.) or games & sports during village feasts or festivals, religious get-togethers or wedding ceremonies, etc. Such entertainments and merry makings organized by the Rkhāng members gave room to breathe and relaxation to the people of the village/surrounding villages from the monotony of their daily routine works.

The youths of the Rkhang were indeed the backbone of the village. They were involved in almost all the activities of the village such as cutting/leveling house constructions site, collecting house constructions materials (bamboo, thatches, woods/pillars, etc.), gathering firewood for cooking and bonfire from the forest, fetching water from village drinking ponds, ushering and serving public gatherings, distribution of meat to every household whenever there was village or religious ceremonies and functions, etc.

There were two separate Rkhāng - one for the bachelors/boys and the other for the damsels/girls. The bachelors Rkhang was known as “Kartlàng Rkhāng” and the damsels Rkhang was called “Nangāka Rkhāng”. Each Rkhāng had its own leaders/authority to look after the affairs of the Rkhāng. The leader/head of the Kartlang Rkhāng was called “Khāngshellak” or “Kartláng Úpa” and the leader of the Nangāka Rkhāng was called “Khāngshellak” or “Nangāka Úpa”. Kartlang Rkhāng was totally out of bound from Nangaka/girls because they believed that if they entered into the Kartlang Rkhāng without proper and acceptable reason that would bring bad luck to the village in diverse ways like returning empty handed from hunting, accident, defeat or casualties in war etc. Hence, women’s entry into the Kartlang Rkhāng was strictly prohibited. Similarly, entry of Kartlang/gents into Nangaka Rkhang was strictly prohibited.

Rkhāng, like any other institutions, had its own sets of rules and regulations though not in written forms. Though no one from outside interfered in its administration, the members understandably came within the purview of the village authority and were liable to punishment for breaking any traditional and customary law. Discipline seemed to be the keyword for the purpose of smooth running of the Rkhāng (both Kartlang & Nangaka).

Rkhāng might aptly be called a microcosm of the village and like the village it had its own council similar to organizational structure of a village administration.

Membership of Rkhāng was an elaborate affair. The actual enrollment was preceded by a period of probation which enables young members to know what was expected of them as members of the Rkhāng. At the initial stage of membership, the young boys/girls had to bear several ordeals and trials in order to qualify as a member. Sometimes, they had to bear a series of ragging meted out by the senior members. They were made to gather firewood, fetch water, cook food and ran errands of the Rkhang. The junior members were expected to emerge unscathed and undaunted from all those trials. After a period of three years, one became a senior member and assumed other weightier responsibilities in connection with the administrations and running of the Rkhāng.

The Rkhāngs were constructed by the villagers however responsibility of maintenance was vested upon the members. If the Rkhāng was in a dilapidated state and called for dismantling, it was the responsibility of the members to do that. However, construction of a new Rkhāng required involvement of the entire villagers with grand feasting and drinking. The ingredients and expenditures for the feast and ceremony were borne by the families of the Rkhang members. Every Rkhāng member would bring the requisite amount of rice, rice-beers, meat/vegetables etc. from his/her home and would submit them to the common Rkhāng fund from where the feast was arranged. While the Rkhāng was maintained by the youths, it was financed by their parents.

Rkhang was also like a youth’s dormitory where apart from learning things the members also came to the Rkhang after day’s works and slept together at night. At night they didn’t simply come to sleep but also to learn many more about community life from the seniors. As member of the Rkhāng, each one of them had to bring a piece of firewood everyday in the evening for the fire regulation at fireplace of the Rkhāng. The firewoods thus collected were called “Meirup Heeng” and the members slept around the fireplace. If one failed to bring Mèirup Heeng, he/she bore punishment/fine for that.

Thus, the Rkhāng system of the Maring Nagas was a typical Institution where all the necessities/pre-requisites to become a responsible and successful human being in the society were taught to the young people (boys & girls). The Maring people practiced it till recent time; even after the dawn of Christianity (in the later part of 1940s). However with the change of time, the importance and value of Rkhang has gradually dwindled. Moreover, with the coming of Christianity in our society, people’s outlook and thinking towards life and society gradually changed and deviated which ultimately has cost the Rkhang system completely somewhere in the 3rd quarter of the 20th century. With the extinction of the Rkhang, system to determine maturity and eligibility for marriage no more practiced in the Maring society. Consequently it has become difficult to ascertain whether a boy or a girl is truly matured and fit for marriage because Rkhang system ascertains maturity not only of age but also of mind. Traditionally, the attainment of marriageable age of the boys or girls was determined by being a member of this Institution. Therefore, Rkhang membership was a pre-requisite for all the Maring bachelors and damsels to qualify for marriage.

Culturally and traditionally the Maring people are extremely rich. We have several cultural functions and festivals which are more of rituals and ceremonies.

Functions: Some of the grand functions in the Maring society are as under –

• Nulou-Chalou – It is a Marriage ceremony.
• Tuytrum kangei – It is a child cleansing ceremony performed after 5 (five) days of a female child is born, and after 6 (six) days of a male child is born.
• Nao-manshim – It is a child naming ceremony.
• Lu ngou/Sam ngou – It is a ceremony of first hair cut of a child.
• Khna-ut – It is a ceremony of piercing earlobes of a child.
• Minphuk-phalphuk – It is a naming ceremony for dignitaries.
• Thil-klai – It is a stone pulling ceremony for monument.
• Halbu-bun – It is a ceremony of Pole erection.
• Khi-ruy – It is a funeral ceremony.
• Khi-throh/Thrim throh – It is a ceremony to appease the spirit of the death performed after few months from the day of demise.
• Yulkhayer da/Yulran phun – It is a ceremony for establishment of new village which involves rituals to ascertain site.
• Cheemun phun – It is a ceremony for plaining/cutting new site for building.
• Cheem chang – This is an inauguration ceremony of a new house/building.
• Kumran chêr/Phungtung chêr – It is a ceremony of welcoming and prayer for blessing upon new year.
• Yúydingcha makat – It is a ceremony of offering holy water to God.
• Phúngting/phúngrîng – This is a ceremony for repairing log drum.
• Palthungshā/Palthũng bún – This is a ceremony for repairing village gates.
• Cheemthrai khrum(Cheemlhou tou) – This is a worship ceremony to appease the household deity
• Chā ran mártam/Chínnoú mártam/Cha martam – This is a ceremony of tasting new harvest.
• Knā-thúí/Kna bul/Kna shim – This is a ceremony of offering or sacrificing even creatures in exchange of life of the sick. This is a ritual performance to heal the sick.

Festivals: Festivals play very important roles in the lives of the maring people. These are not just merry making with eating and dancing but also ritual performances. Some of the important festivals of the Maring people are –

• Kho-stung marlheng- This is a festival of erection/repair of village altar. After the coming of Christianity many traditions including this very important festival are no more practiced.
• Lam klai/Yuylam klai – This is a festival of cleaning village approach roads including road to drinking water ponds.
• Yaa-kyao – This is a hunting festival.
• Inloiya chun/ Lhouwa chun – This is a festival of dance every 5 (five) years.
• Chada/Bal tla – This is a seed sowing festival celebrated by villagers.
• Trun luk/Trun khum/Schei chan – This is a harvest festival celebarted by villagers.
• Paryao or parlhing bun/ parlhang bun – This is a festival of erection of flower vats.
• Nungkum(khúng kãp/nung fyoú – This is an Archery festival.

Most of the functions and festivals of the Maring people are accompanied by ritual performances performed by the village priest (Theem) involving sacrifices and offerings of lives like hens, pigs, mithuns (shreem), etc. What to offer/sacrifice depends on the nature of the function or the festival. In some ritual cases like Kna-thui, the Theem (Priest) would advise what to offer/sacrifice.

Indigenous faith and belief (primal religion) of the Maring people was firmly based on traditional ways of invocations, worships, offerings, sacrifices, appeasement and healing. They firmly believed in it and practiced them for their sustenance.

The Maring people in olden days believed that there was one God called Um (the supreme deity, whose nature was benevolent). He was believed to be only one and was above all. He was the Creator (Seempi-Shapi Pu) of all things, including heavens (Thangwan/Thangmun, Nungthou, Khiya ram) and human beings and things; the Sustainer (Dunpu-yukpi Pu), the God of Universe (Shimlei­Thangwan Pu). Besides, they worshipped other lesser gods or gods of the lower realm called ‘Thrai’. They also worshiped the local deity called Rampu-tupu/Ram thrai/Lukbom thrai (god of the high places/sacred places); they also believed in the village deity (Kholamal pu/palthung tharai); and the ‘ancestral deity’ called Cheem-thrai. Whenever the Marings worship the God/Umpu or the deities, they made offerings (thuinaput makat), sacrifice animals (malamthut), ranging from a mere offering of water (yuy khying bunsunda) to an offering (sacrifice) of big animals like mithun (shirim), pigs or ritually accepted animals or birds like hens or roosters or chickens and even the ritual feasts were performed in the worship.

The Maring people in olden days also believed in the existence of the evil spirits or devils called Shea-krao, Langa (lhim-krao), Tathi-tahoi khi-krao, Kamang-krao, etc. Those were the malevolent spirits, which caused sickness or diseases and sufferings to human beings. Those devils or the evil spirits were not worshipped, but they were propitiated/appeased with sacrifices of animals called luk-khang or luk-thut or puluk-thut, so that they don’t harm or trouble human beings.

The Maring people in olden days believed in life after death. They believed that those who died the good dead would go up above, while the bad would go below to a place inside the earth called Khiya Ram (the hell or the place of dead). But spirits of those who died extraordinary or unnatural would flit about between Heaven and Earth (uncertain place). They believed that unless the family members perform Khi-throh/Thrim throh (a ceremony to appease the spirit of the death performed after few months from the day of demise) his/her spirit would continue to flit around and disturb the family. Traditionally they offer food to the departed soul (until Khi-throh/Thrim throh is performed) before they take their meal. It is believed that the soul will rest only after Khi-throh is performed. The reward of a virtuous life is immediate; “after death the good are born again at once into this world” as quoted by Mr.T.C. Hodson from the descriptions of R. Brown- A Report for 1868-69, p.127.*8

*8 T.C. Hodson: The Naga Tribes of Manipur. Low Price Publications. D.K. Publishers Distributors (P) Ltd. Delhi-53. pp.162 & 164.

Maring people worshipped God in different forms according to the situations and occasions. They worship the household deity as Cheemthrai. The local deity was worshipped as Rampu-tupu. The deity of high sacred places or groves was worshipped as Lukbam thrai; the village altar deity was worshipped as Kholamun Pu; the fertility deity was worshipped as Umhai. The God of blessing was worshipped as Umkarsui-Umkarshang. Above all, the Marings worshipped the God of Universe (Shimlei-Thangwan Pu), the Creator of both living and non-living beings as Seempí-Shapípu Dunpu. They also worshipped the spirits of the Patriotic Heroes of the village(s) in order to protect the village(s) from their enemies and the evils and even to help them in the warfare or in the battlefields.

The Maring people before the dawn of Christianity in their land believed in Divination and Omens. Divination and Omens are bit different from each other but both are process for predicting future/outcomes. They had been in search for divine strength, guidance, and inspiration through divination and omen. Divination and omens does not always reveal good sign. It reveals bad signs as well.

Divination is to get the hidden information. They seek information using fowl, eggs, plants or leaves to conclude whether the mission would be successful or not such as hunting, fishing, war, site settlement and searching the lost.

Omen is believed to give warning about future events. They draw such warning from creatures like cat, owl, pigeon, rooster, deer, etc. For instance, a cat crossing the road/way upward is good omen however crossing downward is a bad omen. Rooster crowing before time is believed as bad omen (Walang khung in local term). The Maring people also believed in prophecy and dreams. The prophets and dreamers are considered as God’s/deity’s messengers. Prophecy and dreams are considered as divine revelation or oracle of divine to the people. They can prophesy or predict the future of a person.

The Maring people before the dawn of Christianity believed in fetishism. They believed that there is spirit or power dwelling in object or thing. The Maring people used to keep a stone (or more) in a basket/tray made of cane/bamboo splinters (phun in local dialect) near solai/shotlai (the main pillar of the house considered as household deity’s pillar); it is a fetish stone. They believed that the female fetish stone can reproduce and the offspring fetish stones can be taken away by the same Chimkhur for keeping in the same manner.

A Maring family consists of husband, wife and their unmarried children. Maring is a patrilineal society; continuity of each generation is genealogically linked up through male. The husband is the head of the family. It is the customary law of the Maring to relinquish the house in favour of the eldest son as soon as he got married. The parents and the unmarried children, if any, will be helped by their clan members and the villagers as a whole to build a new house. The revered articles such as ritual stones and associated properties remain in the original home. The parents may however, choose to stay with any of the sons if they wish. But the eldest son (Pípā) has the responsibility to look after the parents as long as they live. The rule of primogeniture provides the eldest son the sole right to property. As head and custodian of the household affairs, it is the duty of the father to look after and maintain the household affairs. He has the authority to give consent in marriages of his sons and daughters. He represents his family in the clan meetings and village meetings or community works. He also represents his family in the court. The maintenance of the family is being shared by the married sons with the active co-operation and help from their unmarried sons and daughters.

The orphans, posthumous children and widows are treated as members of the family entitling them to enjoy equal share over the properties of the village or community.

A widow with a son is treated as family. However in the absence of a son, she may be exempted from paying certain taxes and from physical activities of the village. A formal declaration has to be made to the villagers for the exemptions due to the death of male descendants. The declaration is made by the nearest of kin of the vanishing family either on the event of the death of the last male descent, or on the marriage of the last daughter on the very next day of the event. This declaration is called “Ruikûk”. It is basically making known to the villagers that their family has vanished; henceforth neither village taxes will be paid nor will participate in any other village activity in the name of the family. On doing Ruikûk, the nearest relative offers a pig and rice beer to the villagers. Children are under the control of the parents till they get married.

Marriage: The practices both monogamy and polygamy (Nû manthrîn) were prevalent in the Maring society. Besides, among the Maring people, differentiation of status was intimately connected with polygyny. The first wife enjoys the highest position. She is considered superior to other wives (second wife or concubine). No formal ceremony is performed in the case of later marriages. The junior wives or non-major wives are not entitled to any separate house. In the case of levirate, the deceased brother’s wife will enjoy the right of a formally married wife. One of the junior wives does not have a claim. In such a situation rights of inheritance is recognized on the basis of seniority.

Betrothal: Marriage negotiation is an elaborate customary practice. Formalization of marriage takes three years. During the period of these three years, pre-marriage ceremony (nû’kngai) has to be performed three times. On the final pre-marriage ceremony, bride price (Manlam) is given symbolizing the final performance of marriage. On that day the feast is being arranged at the house of the bride by the groom’s party. The bride price is valued in terms of gongs (Mȧndār), Mithun (Shrim) of not less than three years old, a sum of Rs30/- (rupees thirty) along with Rs6/-(rupees six) as a price for feeding mother’s breast milk. The gong should measure seven kãps. The gong may be replaced by cash in case of unavailability of gong with the specification. In recent years a Mithun along with rupees sixty is the amount generally accepted as the bride price. In case of marriage by elopement, the “nû’kngai” process is not performed. If the girl, after nû’kngai (after the completion of all the formalities) runs away with another boy, violating the agreement, a heavy fine consisting of three mithuns of not less than three years old, three pigs, three chickens, three jars of rice beer (Waitũl-khang) and gongs of six kāps would be imposed on the new couple. If the new husband belongs to the same clan the fine will be reduced to one-third. In addition, the boy will be required to pay a fine of two gongs (mȧndār) - one of seven kāps and the other of six kāps to the earlier husband, so as to prevent him from demolishing his house.

Condition of Marriage: A marriage to be valid according to the custom must conform to certain conditions. The conditions are:

Age of Marriage: The Maring people have a unique institution known as Rkhāng. It is also a kind of dormitory for the unmarried people. Any boy or girl before entering into marriage life is required to be a member of their respective Rkhang. Membership of the Rkhang clears the age barrier; it is a pre-requisite qualification as young boys and girls get training in every field to lead an independent and happy married life.

Prohibition: The Maring strictly follow clan exogamy in case of marriage between two parties and prohibit clan endogamy. If and when a marriage takes place in violation of the customary clan exogamy, the marriage is regarded as null and void. Such a union is called ‘Pinglam’ in local term that is incest. The violation requires them to be banned from participating in ritual practices called ‘Kholamal’. Besides, the violator is penalized/fined (múngna) with pig(s) and rice beer by the villagers. Depending on village, some would kill a goat and a chicken. The chicken is split into two equal parts and is buried with the village priest (Theemkhui) performing the whole rites. If a girl, while still in the Rakhang become pregnant (Selam ur/thram ur) she is fined a pig and a pot of rice beer by the villagers. Such incident or event is called ‘Rkhāng toubor’ and the fine imposed is called ‘Chui’ or ‘Leichui’.

Matrilineal Cross-cousin Marriage: Marriage to the mother’s brother’s daughter is the most preferred one and is known as ‘Pũwachã mánei lou’. However marriage to the mother’s sister’s daughter is not allowed. But if there is such union, there is no strict custom to regulate it. Such union is called Thlam-chárcha. Since clan exogamy is strict rule of custom no two persons related by blood on the father’s side can marry. This is a prohibition based on the ground of consanguinity i.e. relationship by blood or by birth.

The Maring society is not very strict in applying prohibition on the ground of affinity. A Maring man can marry his brother’s widow or his deceased wife’s sister. A Maring marrying elder brother’s widow is more common than marrying younger brother’s widow. In Maring society neither a man can marry his wife’s mother nor does a woman marry her daughter’s husband.

Marriage between the fosterage (adopted children) groups is possible in the Maring society if the adopted son and daughter are from different clan and stand in a marriageable relation.

Consent: The marriage alliance between two individuals of the opposite sex is also an alliance between the exogamous clans and two family units. Hence the parental approval is a must. Marriage is also needed for successfully meeting the needs of agriculture based economy. Therefore before giving consent to their marriage the parents judge whether the would-be couple will be able to cope with the ever challenging situation of the society for their living.

Marriage by payment: Marriage by payment is the general practice among the Maring people. The bride price consists of Gong of seven kaaps and a Mithun. The animal to be given should be at least of three years old. In addition Rs.6/-(rupees six) is to be given to the bride’s family as price for mother’s breast milk.

Secondary Marriage: Secondary marriages are neither enjoined nor compulsory. The Maring people practiced both senior and junior levirate i.e. if the elder brother dies either with or without an issue his younger brother may take the widow. It is also permitted for the elder brother to take the widow of his younger brother though it is a rare practice.

Elopement: Elopement was practiced in the past and it is still in vogue. It is understood to be mutually agreed action however there are cases where the boy forcefully took away the girl or by creating a situation by which she is compelled to stay overnight. In the Maring society a girl went overnight with a boy is assumed to have shared bed (which is not necessarily true always) and the girl is left with no option but to marry him.

Concubine: The practice of keeping concubine or more than one wife (nûkhu-niyal dun) is an accepted norm amongst the Maring Nagas though very rarely happen. No formal ceremony is performed in the case of the second or third marriages.

Registration of Marriage: Registration of marriage (Ruichal) in the clan is a must among the Maring. Besides, with the spread of Christianity when the people prefer Church Marriage in accordance with the provision of Indian Christian marriage Act, the registration of marriage has become necessary along with the customary procedure.

Guardianship in Marriage: The Maring society being patriarchal, the father is the head of the family and is the guardian and protector of the family. Since the father is the head and main custodian of the family, he acts as the guardian in marriage. In the absence of the father, the eldest son acts as the guardian of the family and so he becomes the guardian in marriage too.

Restitution of Conjugal Rights: A marriage performed in accordance with the prescribed customary procedure and full formality gives the status of husband and wife to the boy and the girl respectively along with certain mutual rights and duties to each other. One obligation of such party is to live in each others’ society. If and when any of the parties to the marriage withdrew from the society of the other, the affected party may approach the clan head and to the village court who will enquire and look into the grievances of the aggrieved party. On such consideration, if it is found that such withdrawal by a party is not reasonable, a directive is given to the other party for restitution of conjugal right.

Divorce: The practice of divorce (Nû-Khãina or Shál-khãina) is prevalent among the Maring people although very rare. When any of the parties to the marriage violates the sanctity and matrimonial rules, then the other party may asked for a divorce. If it is found that the grounds on which the divorce is sought for is reasonable and well founded, an order for the solution of the marriage tie is generally given. The grounds on which the divorce can be sought are adultery, desertion, mutual consent, etc.

Re-marriage: There is no bar either for widow, widower or a divorcee to marry for the second time after the dissolution of the earlier marriage. A widow or widower or a divorcee may remarry immediately after the divorce is granted or soon after the death of the spouse, if he or she wishes. But for widow, or a widower, it is preferred if he or she marries after a lapse of a year from the death of the spouse.

A widow on remarriage has to abandon all her claims to her deceased husband’s properties because the said properties cannot be passed over to any other clan. Accordingly, a widow is permitted to marry the brother of the deceased because in that case, the properties would remain in the same family and she can retain all her deceased husband’s properties.

Custody of Children: All weaned children belong to the husband or his clan and can be claimed by him as his heirs, in case of divorce. The woman may keep un-weaned children for care and nursing but the children are to be returned to the father after a lapse of one or two years or even more.

Period of minority: The period of minority in the Maring society depends on the minors’ physical structure and his or her capacity to participate in the community’s work as a full able bodied person. Until a boy or a girl attains this stage, he or she is considered minor. It’s not always the age that determines stage.

Guardianship in the Maring Society: There are two types of guardianship under the Maring Customary laws - Natural and Secondary.

Natural Guardianship - Father is the natural guardian of a minor child and he is held responsible if his minor child commits any misdeed in the society. On the death of the father, the mother is the natural guardian if she remains unmarried. Usually, on the death of the father, the eldest son becomes the guardian of his minor brothers and sisters until they attain adulthood. He also maintains the family and the family’s properties.

Secondary Guardianship – It is the guardianship by the nearest of kin. On the death of natural guardian of minor children, it is the duty of every member and their nearest relative to look after the minor children and their properties. In this connection, if necessary their clan members and relatives may appoint guardian to shoulder the burden of looking after the children when they have no nearest of kin to take charge of the minor ones. A widow who has minor kids, remarried, may take her minor children to her second husband’s house for their upbringing with due approval from the deceased husband’s relatives. But she and her second husband cannot claim the children to be theirs.

Power of alienation of properties by guardian: It is a natural duty of a guardian to manage and to look after not only the minor person but also his/her properties. The properties of the parentless minor child is managed and maintained by the nearest relative till attainment of maturity of the child. A widow who is the guardian of the minor children can sell the properties left by her husband if necessary, for the welfare and benefit of her minor children. The guardian appointed can also sell the deceased’s properties, for the sake of their wellbeing with permission from the clan members and other close relatives. The nearest of kin can also sell the deceased’s properties to repay the latter’s debt if any. A guardian can never have personal claim over the minor’s properties or any part thereof.

Control over powers of guardian: Parents being the natural guardians of the minor has unlimited and unfettered power over the minor. But even when the eldest brother or the nearest kin becomes the guardian, they cannot alienate the property belonging to the minor without the expressed consent and permission from the clan members and close relatives.

Removal of secondary guardian: A guardian appointed by the clan members and close relatives can be removed by them if he fails to discharge his duties or if he tries to put personal claim over the minor’s properties. If he ill-treats or neglects to take proper care of the minor or if he abuses the trust reposed on him or if there is misconduct on the part of the guardian appointed, then he can be removed by the clan members and close relatives who had appointed him as the guardian of the minor.

Adoption: Adoption in local term is Cha Kyũk and adopted child is called Kyuk Cha. Adoption is not practiced in the true sense among the Maring people because even if a child is adopted by someone, the adopted child’s relation/tie with the original parents is never severed. However, the provision for adoption is made for anyone willing to adopt a son or a daughter. The question of adoption comes in when a couple has no issue who could look after them in their old age. Usually adoption is within their own clan, but there is nothing to stop them adopting child from a different clan. But if a child is from different clan, he cannot claim rights of inheritance of his adopter parents. If the adopted child does not prove worthy of adoption, he/she could be cast out from the family. A childless couple becomes the responsibility of their nearest of kin in the clan, or sub clan who consider as their duty. They are also entitled to inherit whatever material properties the old couple might have acquired during their lifetime. Therefore, there is a custom of automatic devolution of responsibility by which the nearest of kin of the couple has to look after them. However, if the couple adopts a son, it becomes a binding duty of the adopted son to look after the adopted parents in their old age.

Whenever an adoption takes place in a family, the adopted son or daughter need not follow the customary rules of the adopting clan, as he/she does not become member of the clan, which his/her adopter parents belong. Accordingly, the adopted son/daughter can marry anyone who belongs to the adoptive parents’ clan if they stand in the marriageable relation. But if the adopted son/daughter is from the same clan of the adopting parents, he/she cannot do that, but he/she can marry to any other clans.

Maintenance in Maring Society: The clan is a basic unit in the Maring social structure. This unit is automatically taken to be an extended family to which all the members of the clan belong. The spirit of cooperation among the clan members as well as among the members of the kin group is very strong. In case of any difficulty faced by a particular member or members due to natural calamity or otherwise, the clan members and relatives come forward voluntarily to give relief and support. The mutual rights and duties of the kin group and clan members are the mainstay of the Maring society.

Liability of Maintenance: A Maring man is under a personal obligation to maintain his wife, minor sons, unmarried daughters and at the same time, aged parents when they come to stay with him.

The father is solely responsible for maintaining his family so long as he is active. After his death or during his old age, the burden of maintaining the family automatically passes on to the eldest son if he has attained the age of maturity. If the father dies, leaving behind minor children and/or widowed wife, his brother or any other nearest of kin is responsible to look after them. If the widow deserts her children by remarrying other man, it is the responsibility of the eldest son (if grown up) to look after the family affairs. In case the children are still minor or none mature/responsible enough to look after the family, it is the binding duty of the nearest of kin to look after the family until anyone from the family can take over the responsibility. Besides maintenance, he is to provide them with all sort of marriage price on the occasion of daughters’ marriage. The lunatic or physically challenged children are looked after by their parents or whoever is the head of the family.

The husband has the binding duty to maintain his family - wife and children. In case of death of the husband, the widow is maintained by her father-in-law or husband’s nearest of kin and she becomes the responsibility of the clan as a whole provided she remains unmarried in her deceased husband’s house. The maintenance of the widow is done out of her deceased husband’s properties and helped by the deceased husband’s close relatives.

The maintenance of illegitimate child is always a charge for the putative father. A child born out of illegal relation is called “Selam Chã/Thramcha”. Legitimacy of an issue born out of illegitimate sex relation is ensured by compelling the couple to get married with public approval if the parents stand in marriageable relation and outside the prohibited degree of relationship.

Thru-Lhuk: Thrũlhûk is the restoration of the female family member after the dead of her husband. When a daughter/sister of a man or a family is married to a man from another family or clan, and the couple remained without any issue (childless) for sometimes/many years and the husband dies leaving the barren (childless) wife with the family where no other brothers/relatives to marry her or look after her in her diseased husband’s family the woman’s family can restore her back to the parents’ family.

Nu-Trun: Nûtrûn is another peculiar tradition of the Maring people practiced till present days. This is a practice of the groom leaving behind his parents and living together with his wife’s parents for 3 (three) years in their village. This happens mainly due to the fact that the wife’s parents have no son/male child to inherit family’s properties.

After all the process for the nûtrûn is settled, the man/boy has to stay at the house of his wife for at least three years, working to help his father-in-law’s family as Nûtrûn duties and shouldering responsibilities of the family. Both the husband and the wife can also work/earn and save (cash & kind/properties) for themselves for their future after the Nûtrûn period is over. So long as they are in Nûtrûn period, they cannot be counted as a separate family from his father-in-law’s family in the society/village. But as soon as the couple is freed/released from their in-law’s family they will be counted as a separate family in the village/society with all the responsibilities as a family in the village.

In the Maring society, land is considered as the most valuable and important resources, which requires to be put into the best productive use for the welfare of the people. The land is treated as free gift of God. The land of Maring is divided into two viz. plain areas and hill areas. The Land Revenue and Land Reform Act of Manipur 1960 was enforced in the paddy fields of the plain areas only whereas the Act does not cover the hill areas.

The land used among the Maring society can be divided into different types and the system of land holding varies from village to village. The land can be categorized into four different classes:

Settlement Land: The land set for the purpose of residence of the villagers is known as settlement area or Yultlai-Mèilamril. Each individual family has household site with kitchen garden in which they grow vegetables for domestic use. But the ownership of the land remains with the village. It should be borne in mind that the household site where the individual resides can be used as long as the family exist but in case the family changed their residence, any family from the village can occupy the land for residential purpose.

Jhum Land: Second type of land use is known as Jhumland or Pāmloú/Shontrun loú a cultivating land in the hill/mountain range especially for paddy and various cash crops. The village community as a whole owns these lands. The selection of sites for Jhum cultivation is done by the village authority (Yul-ur purap) in consultation with Khulpu and Khullak of the village. Any family can use land for Jhum cultivation as long as the family is a unit of the village but the family cannot claim the ownership of the land used. The lands are used for five to seven years continuously depending on the fertility of the land. The Jhum cycle is eight to ten years. The land disputes are always settled by the village authority.

Terrace Land: The third category of land is Terrace Land. Since majority of Maring people are dependent on agriculture for their livelihood, these lands are considered most important and valued. Terrace lands are owned by individual family and are heritable and transferable.

Reserve Forest: The fourth category of land is Reserved Forest (Mèilamril Híngyao), which is beyond the agricultural land. The village authority controls these lands. These lands are especially kept for growing and preserving valuable trees for construction and commercial purposes.

Ownership of the Land: The ownership of land among the Maring is community ownership except the terrace lands and the wet paddy fields which can be owned by individuals. Even though the lands are community owned, individual family can have permanent farming and can use the land as long as they live in the village. However the system is not practiced in some other Maring society.

Transfer of Land: Transfer of land through sale or legacy is prevalent only in the case of terrace lands and wet paddy fields owned by individual families, which is under the purview of the Acts. But the rest of the land cannot be transferred and/or cannot be inherited.

Mode of inheritance: In the Maring Society, the mode of inheritance is always in the male line. According to the Maring Tradition, the eldest son of the family inherits all the properties from the parents and it is his responsibility to give shares to his younger brothers. Daughters do not inherit land properties but they are given properties like ornaments, clothes etc. at the time of their marriage.

Debts: The practice of debt is prevalent in the Maring society. It is the tradition of the Maring people that, responsibility of the family is taken over by the eldest son after the death of the father. If their father died, leaving behind debts, the responsibility of payment goes to the eldest son. He is helped by his younger brothers to repay debts. In case of sons who failed to repay the debts, the clan and nearest of kin will help in repaying the debts.

Sales: In the Maring society, since most of the village lands are owned by the village community, the sale of land is not prevalent among them. But properties other than land can be sold. In the case of Mithun sold to a person outside the village, the seller gives Rs 50/- or more as thanks giving (Halkûl tuy) to the village authority.

Father being the head of the family is the competent person for sales. He can sale the family property in consultation with his eldest son. Payment can be made either in cash or in kind depending on the understanding of both the parties.

In case of widow, who after the death of her husband refrain from remarriage, she can sale her deceased husband’s properties in consultation with clan members of the deceased husband. In a society the basic principles of social life are based on mutual help, trust, reciprocity and integrity. The custom of mortgage seems to be rare in the days of yore among the Maring societies. But it has gained its momentum with the march of modern socio-cultural progress. It was in Maring tradition that everything except gong (dār) can be given for mortgage.

Agreement is made in front of witnesses from both the parties so as to avoid disputes in future. The mortgaged property can be sold by the Mortgagee, if failed to pay within the stipulated time. The mortgaged property can be leased out to other persons.

Lease: Since the lands of Maring are divided into two, the system of holding is also different. In the hill areas, the system of lease is not prevalent whereas in the plain areas, it is prevalent especially in the terrace or wet paddy field. The rent is usually half the produce or it depends on mutual consent of the leasee and the leaser. The duration of lease depends upon the agreement made between the parties. The usual duration of lease is three years.

Loan: Loan in Maring society is taken to meet the immediate demands of the individual family. In the traditional society, loans were taken in kind especially crops and with interest. In the present day society, loan in term of money is more prevalent. Agreement for the loan depends upon the amount of the loan. If the amount is small, witnesses are sought from both the parties. If the amount is big the agreement is made in front of the village authority. Failing to pay the loan leads to the village court for final decision.

Maring people have been very fond of playing games & sports in their social life. Apart from many traditional festivals and functions, they have many traditional & indigenous games & sports both indoor & outdoor associated with their community life. Some of the important games & sports are given below:

• Karshul (Wrestling) for boys/men.
• Thlúngkhíng (Short-put) for both men/women
• Rúy Tāngril (Tug-of-war) both men/women
• Chouchũn (High jump) - Halbung chũnhoi during halhat & chābung chũnhoi during the harvesting festivals.
• Chèithun (Javelin throw) both men/women
• Chũnkhwa (Long jump) both men/women
• Kãngkāp (Dice striking) both boys/girls
• Waa karshul (Cock fighting) both men/women
• Shuk-khrèiril (Twisting pounding bar) for men only
• Khrit khãng (Weight lifting) for men/boys only
• Chányãng (Race) both boys/girls
• Kangthrum thui/Ball kao (Foot ball) for boys/men
• Kāngthrum phit/Kangchei (Hockey) for boys/men only
• Malaa kãp (Archery) for boys/men only
• Waa-raal chũn (Chess/Checker) for men/boys
• Hal karshul (Bull fight) for boys/children
• Hogchã pûkmrek (piglets’ amusement) for children’s amusement
• Kãng/phúhār khîngchek (striking potsherds/dice) a cricket/baseball kind of game for boys
• Kánthui mrek(Children swinging on a swing hung between two branches)
• Yúyhai (Swimming) for men only
• Híngdou/khwãbung kãkā (Climbing poles/bamboo) for boys only.
• Yulril (Hide and seek) for children.
• Huttum kanring/mukril (Arm/fist wrestling) for boys/men.

Most of these games are also being played by the other tribes/communities of our state/country and the world.

The people of Maring were well known as one of the richest tribes in terms of culture, traditions, customs and language from the ancient times. But due to the frequent attacks from the bigger or majority tribes and communities besides conflicts and wars (head hunting) between their own villages, the Maring civilization had gradually downfallen and forgotten too. The brief twists and turns of events may be understood together as under:

Maring villages were often attacked/raided by the troops of the Meitei Maharajas since first century A.D. till the nineteen century A.D. Those attacks/incidents are found in the written documents like in The Royal Chronicle of Manipur (Cheitharol Kumbaba), published by Manipuri Sahitya Parishad, Imphal; 1st printed in 1967, 2nd printed in 1989 & 3rd printed in 2005. Some of the incidents of attacks/raids upon the Maring villages from different hostile troops found written in the documents and records in their own times are quoted/referred below:

During the reign of Meidingu Taothingmang, the third king of the Manipur (264-364 A.D.) there was a war between the King Taothingmang and the Phunal Telheiba, the Maring Archer (Telheiba). Meidingu Taothingmang (the Maharaj) was wounded/shot with the arrow by the Phunal Telheiba.

During the time of Meidingu Ura Konthouba (‘Warakonthouba’ in the 3rd line of the Khoibu Inscription),*ft.”History of Manipur, Vol.I. Pre-Colonial Period; by (Prof.Gangmumei Kamei), National Publishing House, Estd.1950. 23. Daryaganj, New Delhi-110 002. pp.41-42,\f* the tenth Maharaj of Manipur (568-658 A.D), the troop of his army, under the leadership of general Shenloi Langmai attacked the Maring village “Haokap Chingshāng Khunphom Ngāngcheng” which was on the Langol Hill.*\f .Cheitharol Kumbaba- Manipuri Sahitya Parishad, 2005, p.5. And this same village was again attacked during the reign of Meidingu Punsiba, the thirty sixth Maharaj of Manipur (1404-1432 A.D.)* \f abid. pp.17-28. In this raid, some people of Marings, like Maring Mapu Machan Wakna Chana Leinoubi, Tengna Chana Henmoibi, Mathanglen Sen, Taken Lukhoiba, Leirang Shachiba, etc were captured by the troops.

And in the days of the reign of Meidingu Thangbi Lamthaba, the thirtieth King of Manipur (1302-1324 A.D), attacked the Maring village in south Moirang area (Lulumbung or Lulāmbung), and captured the Maring people like Manaton Thāngshaba (Muntong Lhāngshawa), Thingkarinumanba (Thíngkarmanwa), Haonu Leihoubi-Leihouba (Haonu Leihaowi-Leihaowa), Khalak Lanthouyang (Khullak Lānthoúyang). *\f abid.pp.15-16.

During the reign of Meidingu Koiremba, the thirty-ninth Maharaj of Manipur (15081512 A.D.) a Khoipu (Uipo) Maring village was attacked and captured Mangal Oklaba, Kummei Shonba, Huyen Sakakpa (Ànlhousíl úpā), etc by the troops of the Meitei Maharaj (believed to be Lhouyāng Phontrím, hero of the village), who was overpowered/captured and killed by the Maharaj’s Elephant in 1511 A.D.).* \f abid. p.22.

And during the reign of Meidingu Chalamba, the forty-fourth King of Manipur (15451562 A.D), the troops of the Maharaj attacked/raided and captured the Narum (Ralimkhu) village of Maring in 1561 A.D. * \f abid. p.26.

And during the reign of Meidingu Khagemba, the forty-sixth King of Manipur (15971652 A.D.) the Maharaj’s troops attacked the Maring Khutei (Kholhei Khulil) village in 1606 A.D. And again the same king played a deceitful trick to the people of Maring by inviting them to see the western king. The Maring villagers from the villages like Saibon (Saibol), Sainen (Sairel), Katou (Keiphóm),Yongkhun (Khulimol), Kashung, Lammasi (Nampasi), Narum (Ralimkhu),Makan, Chingshao (Katou Chingshang) were called out, and latter on they were all captured by the Maharaj Khagemba, in 1611 A.D. And the Maharaj demanded from them to pay him taxes along with the girl Shámkhānnu (striped hairs with black & white), the beautiful daughter of the chief of Atoukhu and the Lime stone (lúngou dûn) the products of Lungthao-chir as tribute to him. But the villagers refused the demand of the Maharaj. So the Maharaj sent his troops to attack the village(s) and bring the girl Shámkhānnu and the lime products of the land. During this dispute, the chief and the villagers of the Atoukhu asked the chief and the villagers of the Khoipu village, to be their informers of the war between the Meitei Maharaj (Khagemba), and agreed with them to give information by showing/giving signal with the Khóngma híng (hèimāng woods) when the enemies come. But when the war came, they played opposite trick to confuse the Atoukhu villagers, so the enemies fell upon them easily. But the twin-heroes (brothers) of the village, whose names were Lhouyāng Thamthlok (elder) and Lhouyāng Thamthwai (younger) fought against the enemies and sacrificed their lives at the Raaltheng bung battlefield to save their people from the clutches of the Maharaj’s mighty troops on that day. And again the same troop attacked the Maring Tāngkam (Tlangkhang) village, in 1612 A.D.*\f abid.pp.33 & 34. This same village is no more existent due to burning down to ashes during the World War the Second.

And again in 1625 A.D. the Maring Khutei Kangoi village was attacked by the troops of the Maharaj Khagemba. And the same troop again attacked the Maring villages like Yaotou(Youtu village near present Machi) and Machi (Marimchi)) in 1626 A.D. And during this attack, the Maring Laishangba (Yaotou/Youtu khullak-a priest) was killed and captured other villagers and forced them to pull the boat (Hi Meiróngba) from the Marchangbung (Borchangbung) range to the palace of the Maharaj. And again the troop attacked the Maring Tangkang, Machi andYaotou villages under the leadership of Angoupamba. During this war/raid, a stone “Lúngkhrāng” which possessed supernatural/magical power was taken away from the Machi village and kept in Kangla Palace (Uttra) at the eastern side of the Làmbi Mari Phāngba (Junction of four roads). It was fenced/surrounded with three layers of sagol hawai cemented with stones/bricks and covered with a big/huge stone on the top and fenced with barbed wires at the outermost part. And a Log Bench (‘Pongshang’ in local term) was seized and pulled from the Tangkang village, in 1628 A.D. (Tangkang nā-e, lān ngam-e, phānjao ching-e)* \f abid. p.37.

And in the subsequent year, the troop again attacked the Maring Khunpi(Yulvi), Karongthel (Khulsaibung), Lamlong (Dudu) and Kangoi villages, and captured the villagers and carried away by making them fell in line, piercing through their nostril and ears with cane strings (Ngapurum lengba), under the leadership of Chongtham Tenba, in 1629 A.D.* \f abid. p.37. And the Maharaj Khagemba celebrated the victory over the Maring villages by inviting the eight Nobles of the Meitei Kingdom giving a great feast for them by bidding the competition as “Ningkham Phurit Leiren Leichao Chingnaduna Yu thaknaye,” in 1631 A.D. * \f abid. p.38. And in 1650 A.D. during November/December & January, the same king, Maharaj Khagemba forcefully used the Marings to pull the mass boats from Samukom on the Heirok range via Machi village (Yongba tongba Samuthokta hiyāng chingduna hiyām thok-e).* \f abid.p.42.

And during the reign of Meidingu Paikhomba or Charairongba (1666-1697 A.D.), the villagers of the Machi and its surroundings were forced to pull the mass boats from the hills (Heirok range), where one of the Maharaj’s work supervisors (overseer) was killed (died) at the spot (Meitleicha dāhȧtna), and also a villager (forced labourer) from the Machi village, the one Tanem Kodun when the log (boat) rolled over him and died immediately during the time of pulling by the villagers during February/March,1671 A.D. (Meidingu Paikhomba hiyāng yānba shānle. Lamda thāda hiyām thok-e. Mee si-e.)* \f abid. p.47.

And during the reign of Meidingu Garibaniwaj, the fiftieth king of Manipur (1709-1748 A.D) the Maring villages were attacked by the troop of Maharaj under the leadership/command of Guru, Ningthem and Ibungo Wangkheirākpa in 1729 A.D. The villages were like Khunpi (Yulvi), Lamlong (Dudu), Karongthel (Khulsaibung) and Machi (Marimchi). And the same troop again attacked the Maring Sairen (Sairel-Saishim), Nungsai (Moulhang) and Urup haokhun villages and captured about thirty one (31) villagers in 1730 A.D.* \f abid. pp.88 & 89. And in order to retaliate the frequent attacks of the troops of Meitei Maharajas, the whole/entire villages of Marings (Awā Maring chingshāng) stirred up (got together) and attacked Thumkhong Pallen, Langathen, Kakching Khullen and Heirok villages and burnt them down into ashes in 1741 A.D. And the Marings killed about 105 Meiteis during the attack and one Maring warrior was arrested by the Meiteis at Kakching. *\f abid. p.103. And in the subsequent days and months of the same year, the troops of Meitei Maharaj again attacked and raided the Maring villages such as Khunpi, Lamlong and Karongthen, under the leadership/command of Haobamcha Sagolsenba Hanjaba, and Mantri Khwairākpa Sanahan (Shyamsai Khwairakpa). And during this war, a Maring warrior killed a Meitei warrior by the name of Irom Tolloi Hidang Houjou, with arrow. After the fight against the Marings, the troop arrived at the palace (Manipuri Kingdom) but the King sent back his noble Angom Khongjomba to the Marings to negotiate/reconcile the relationship with the Marings, in 1742 A.D. and subsequently, the agent of the king with the Marings had reconciled the matter, and decided never to make any war between them (Maring huirin thatnaye). * \f abid. p.104.

And during the reign of Meidingu Chorjit, the fifty-ninth Maharaj of Manipur (1803-1813 A.D), the troop of the Maharaj raided/invaded the Maring villages surrounding Tamu (in Mymar/Burma at present) and captured the villagers and shattered about eleven villages and forced them to pay taxes to the Maharaj for forty-one (41) years. And not only that, but some of the Maring villages like Maring Lamepung was displaced and captured the villagers with all their belongings like gongs, coins, goats, mithuns, dishes, etc. as due taxes to the Maharaj and latter on the villagers were made to settle at the Pareng Pokpi Ching (Khrengtong Bung) known at present, situated on the northern-side of the Langkoubung (Marimchi) range, and even the villagers of this Lamepung were taken to make them worship the King Wairang Pamheiba (i.e.Maharaj Chorjit) at Uttra (Palace of the Meitei Kingdom). * \f abid. pp.187-188 & 190). And during this reign, many of the hill tribesmen were forced to work for the King (Yubaraj Chorjit) both in the palace and the fields as forced labourers. And they were many a time made to fight as games and sports, like boat racings, arms wrestling and many a time they were used as potters. In 1811 A.D. there was a boat racing competition in front of the Maharaj (Yubaraj Chorjit) in the palace, the Marings won the boat-race. * \f abid. p.208.

And during the reign of Meidingu Chinglen Nongdrenkhomba (Maharaj Gambhir Singh) in 1825-1834 A.D. many of the Maring villages were attacked and raided by the troops and during this raid there were about 140 villagers seized (captured) and taken as captives from the six villages like Shakong (Sarbukhong) chief Marongshang, Maring Makanleng (Marimchia), Kongpu (Kopung) and Langapa, etc. And along with the villagers, there were things and properties like cows and wealth were all seized and taken from them. * \f abid.p.240.

And during the reign of Maharaj Chandra Kirti Singh (K.C.S.I.) 1850-1886 A.D. the troops often raided/invaded the Maring villages including the Lusei (Looshai) hill tribes and captured the villagers and make them to pay heavy taxes to the king. Those villages were mostly settled in the Tangkhang range. Now at present most of those villages have been deserted (no more exist). During General Nulthal(Gernal Saheb), the then Political Agent at Manipur (l873 A.D) the treaty was signed between the Manipur Maharaj and the Looshai (Lusei) chiefs and kings under seven articles to maintain peace among them (Annual Administration Report of the Munnipoor Agency for 1873, pp.7 & 8). But for the Marings, there were no such able persons or leaders or chiefs or kings as Looshais (Luseis) to fight against the troops of the Maharaj. So they were brought under forced labours & made to pay tax to Maharaj till 19th century. Most of those villages were from the eastern border areas like Tumu (Tamu) and Yangoupokpi and among those villages, the Kampang village (Maring) is still existing even now. * \f abid. pp.395-398, & 404. During this reign of Maharaj Chandra Kirti Singh (l878 A.D) the villagers of those areas like Khoipu Maring and Machi were forced to make the roads of Eastern borders like Khoibu lambi, and Khongnangban (Thongnaopal) Machi chingkhong, and Tumu taba Maringkam Pamcha louthenda khaiba Lamthou chingkhong làmbi, etc.* \f abid.p.437.

The Maring people were indeed warriors; the above incidences chronicled by the Meitei kings are the pure witnesses. The Meitei kings’ Chronicles also witnesses the fact that the Maring warriors never surrendered to enemies; pride in martyrdom. Thus conclude that the frequent invasion by the mightier Meitei kings was the main reason for the downfall of the Maring civilization once upon a time.